Dilemma of International Community

The US prevention strategies against international terrorism have come a long way since the mid-1990s. The disciplined, centralized organization that conducted the September 11 is diminished because most of the group’s senior and midlevel leaders are either incarcerated or dead, while the majority of those still at large are on the run and focused at least as much on survival as on offensive operations. However, Al Qaeda still has the potential to impose lethal threat.From the critical standpoint, the key challenges for contemporary counterterrorism efforts are not as much Al Qaeda or any other terrorist organizations as what will follow them. The emerging primary terrorist threat includes the global network of mostly Sunni Islamic extremists, which extends beyond members of Al Qaeda. The foundations of these extremist sources remain very much alive and in some cases are growing deeper. Practically, they contain the interconnected economic and political systems of the Muslim w orld.In addition to â€Å"Muslim† factor, there is a widespread opposition toward U. S. policies within and toward the Muslim world, especially the U. S. political position on the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and, which is more important, the invasion and occupation of Iraq (Byman, 2003:61). Considering the mentioned trends and reasons, the counterterrorism challenges after the liquidation of Al Qaeda may very well be even more complex than they were before.Decentralization and secretive nature of terrorist plots as well as indeterminate nature of the final target imposes extreme challenges on the intelligence. While the mission of intelligence in counterterrorism is to monitor and prevent terrorist activity, practically it may become vain due to its inability to identify terrorist groups and individuals. However, even a decentralized terrorist threat has some connections that can be discovered, and this will constitute the core of intelligence counterterrorist efforts.From t he practical standpoint, although almost every extremist can be connected at least indirectly to the network of Sunni Islamic terrorists, the majority of linkages includes only casual contacts and do not involve preparations for terrorist operations directed against the United States. No intelligence service possesses the resources to monitor all of these linkages, to construct the life history of every terrorist, or to compile comprehensive sociograms of the radical Islamist scene (Rothkopf, 2005:34).International community’s willingness to assist in the struggle against terrorist organizations to the major degree has depended on Al Qaeda’s record and menacing capabilities. However, from the contemporary point of view, foreign cooperation becomes more problematic as the issue moves beyond Al Qaeda. Mentioned difficulties that the United States has already encountered in dealing with Lebanese Hizballah depict some of the problems in more generally enlisting foreign hel p against terrorist groups (Byman, 2003:63).An underlying limitation to the willingness of international community to collaborate with the United States on antiterrorist efforts is the skepticism among foreign political elite that the most powerful country in the world needs to be preoccupied with small groups of radicals. Critically, the skepticism of foreign community can be considered in terms of fact that the U. S. preoccupation is no longer with the group that carried out the terrorist attacks on September 11 (Nash, 2004:56). However, the most significant challenge to the U. S.counterterrorist efforts that may emerge along with a more decentralized terrorist threat is the ability to uphold the nation’s own commitment to struggle it. Surprisingly, the American society has revealed that its determination to fight counterterrorism can be just as inconstant as that of foreign publics. During the past quarter century, the U. S. public and government has given different and co ntradictive attention, priority, and resources to U. S. counterterrorist programs, with interest and efforts increasing in the aftermath of a major terrorist incident and declining as time passes without an attack.International Threats of Terrorism From the critical standpoint, it is clear that even being the world’s only superpower the United States can no longer sustain a war on terrorism. Due to inability of the US to provide detection, monitoring and elimination of 100 percent of international terrorist groups, international cooperation in this area seems to be a promising solution. Moreover, terrorist organizations are now acting across the domestic borders of hosting states, jeopardizing security of entire international community and recent terrorist acts in London’s subway became an evident support for this statement.Brian Jenkins underlines that the success of terrorism has much to do with the perception of a nation’s capability to deal with such crises, proposing that â€Å"public perceptions of government standing and competence in combatting terrorism are based not on overall performance, but rather on performance in a few dramatic hostage incidents, where the government, of course, suffers disadvantages from the outset† ((Jenkins, 1983:10). Indeed, the public sees the government only in crisis, demonstrably unable to provide security for its citizens, sometimes yielding to terrorists to save lives, unable to bring its enemies to justice.Practically, a rescue attempt or successful prevention of an attack adds immeasurably to a nation’s image of military prowess, while an attempt that fails does incalculable damage. Many statistics exist to quantify the activities, numbers, types, locations and targets of international terrorists. It was reported in 1986 that â€Å"incidents of terrorism – those involving citizens or territory of more than one country – have doubled in number since 1975, to slightly o ver 800 last year [1985]† (Hanley, 1986:3).Notwithstanding the bombings in August 1998 in Kenya and Tanzania, there are analysts who believe terrorism has been in decline in recent years. â€Å"Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1997†, published by the American State Department, reported that there were a total of 304 acts of international terrorism, one of the lowest annual totals since 1971 (US Department of State, 1997). According to Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1998, the number of acts of international terrorism dropped to 273 attacks. However, in 1998 there was a record high toll of 741 people killed and 5,952 injured in terrorist attacks (US Department of State, 1998).In 2000, there were 423 terrorist acts, an increase of eight percent from the 392 attacks in 1999. The death toll for 2000 was 405, and 791 were wounded (US Department of State, 1999, 2000). The year 2001 witnessed a dramatic increase due to the audacious attacks on 11 September of that year. Many commen tators agree that terrorist violence is, and will likely remain, an integral part of international relations. As Scotland Yard’s counterterrorist specialist George Churchill-Coleman stated, â€Å"Terrorism is with us now, whether you like it or not. You’ve got to adjust your way of life to that† (Hanley, 1986:3).This mentality has now reached the American scene as the head of the Office of Homeland Security, Tom Ridge, noted, â€Å"We need to accept that the possibility of terrorism is a permanent condition for the foreseeable future. † He stated, â€Å"We just have to accept it† (Calabresi & Ratnesar, 21). At airports there is a â€Å"get on with the job† attitude and in daily living one must accept the need to be on guard, like steering clear of suspicious packages and reporting them to the local police. One columnist wrote, â€Å"By not surrounding the (terrorist) incident with hysterical posturing, we cut it down to size.We make it seem a nuisance rather than a cataclysm. We stifle its capacity to instill terror. We decline to be afraid† (McCabe, 1996a:4). In that regard, Great Britain is one of the few nations which is intimately familiar with terrorism and its impact. Lacking any other alternative, the British have essentially learned to live with the threats and the bombings. Moreover, the British have learned to live with intrusive surveillance cameras, the cost of bomb insurance (3. 2 billion dollars a year), as well as a higher awareness of the threat that has been assimilated into the society over the years, particularly since the late 1960s.Even despite the recent terrorist attacks in London’s subway, â€Å"the British approach to terrorism, developed over many years, seems natural in a culture that places great store on a ‘stiff upper lip’† (McCabe, 1996b:8). The prognosis becomes ever more frightening as terrorists seek out softer targets, as witnessed in the 1998 bombing s of the American embassies in Kenya and Tanzania. This is because international police and security agencies will, for the most part, strengthen the defenses of consulates, embassies and residences, and will provide other forms of personal security for the more likely terrorist targets.Therefore, terrorist attacks will probably become more indiscriminate. The bombing campaigns in Paris during the summers of 1986 and 1995, aimed at government buildings, restaurants and cafes, the bombings in London during the spring of 1992 of commuter train stations and the financial district, and the use of sarin in the subway in Japan by the Aum Shinrikyo in 1995, and the February 2001 reported discovery by the British police of a terrorist plot to release sarin into the London underground system as well as the suicide hijacking of four airliners in September 2001 are examples of what we may expect.(Other examples of indiscriminate terrorism are the strikes at airports such as those in December 1 985, in Rome and Vienna. ) Furthermore, targets abound in highly developed industrialized societies and analysts anticipate that terrorist groups will begin targeting vital points such as â€Å"computer systems, power grids and other key links of industrial societies† (Hanley, 1986b:2). Reports underline that terrorists are expanding their interests in nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons as well as information warfare.Some of these concerns were highlighted in December 1999 when the Solicitor General of Canada, Lawrence MacAulay, told the House of Commons that Canada needed to strengthen the government’s capacity to address the threat of a nuclear, biological or chemical attack by terrorists. Although the possibility of such an attack happening was low, Mr. MacAulay felt all levels of government must be prepared to deal with such eventualities (Evenson, 2001:2).His concerns followed warnings by scientists of the Health Protection Branch that a release of the dead ly anthrax bacteria in a major Canadian population center could kill upwards of 35,000 and cost 6. 5 billion to the health care system, underlining the fact that medical facilities were not prepared to deal with such an incident (Evenson, 2001:2). In the fall of 2001, a series of letters containing the anthrax virus were mailed to media centers in New York City.The letters were sent to ABC, NBC and CBS, and were orchestrated to attain the maximum amount of media coverage, while concomitantly stirring up popular fear and anxiety about these and other possible attacks. Another issue that relates to this is that of nuclear scientists who represent a valuable resource to those nations developing nuclear programs, such as modern Iran. Potential Responses to Terrorism: International Scope The evolution and deployment in the 1970s of elite counterterrorist teams in Israel and West Germany was in response, partly, to the frustrations of employing a series of so-called â€Å"non-force† methods against terrorists.Livingstone has argued that â€Å"governments have employed a variety of nonforce strategies in their efforts to resist terrorism, including diplomacy, negotiation, concessions, and cooptation. Occasionally such methods have worked, but more often than not they have failed or only provided a temporary prophylaxis to an endemic problem† (Livingstone, 1982:176). Now it is widely recognized that, under most circumstances, making concessions to terrorists only invites further acts of terrorism. This fact, combined with the failure of the U. N.to take concerted action to develop effective remedies to the problem of international terrorism, has resulted in a growing tendency on the part of national governments to resort to unilateral military action against terrorism in the belief that, if it is not possible to make terrorists answerable to the law, then they must be answerable to the gun. It is apparent from recent twentieth-century history in Western countries that the responsibility for combating terrorism has been, for the most part, that of law enforcement authorities.On occasion, army units were tasked and, for the most part, were found to be operationally wanting in a number of areas such as strategy, methodology and structure. Conventional military forces and tactics have not met the challenge of terrorism: â€Å"Not only are contemporary weapons and tactics far too destructive to be employed in heavily populated urban regions, but also the deployment of large numbers of soldiers against terrorists simply increases the number of targets at which they can strike† (Livingstone, 1982:176).General George Grivas, the famous Cypriot terrorist leader, noted that the level of terrorist operations is much lower than that of conventional military operations. Counterterrorist operations demand specially adapted and trained soldiers, tactics and strategy. He noted the â€Å"only hope of finding us was to play cat and mouse: to use tiny, expertly trained groups, who could work with cunning and patience and strike rapidly when we least expected† (Taber, 1977:118).In short, one must use those same weapons and tactics belonging to the terrorists’ inventory – psychology, stealth, speed, surprise and cunning – against the terrorists themselves. Moreover, candidates for such units must have motivation and determination, physical and mental stamina, initiative and self-discipline, be capable of operating in small groups during long-term isolated operations, and they must have the aptitude to assimilate a wide range of skills and think laterally. This type of military operation demands a different type of soldier, namely one who can develop a broad spectrum of skills.Practically, contemporary counterterrorism demands highly trained and motivated commandos, operating in small groups; skilled in electronics, communications, demolitions, marksmanship, deception, silent killing; and familia r with terrorist tactics and behavior. References Byman, Daniel (2003). Should Hizballah Be Next? Foreign Affairs 82, no. 6, November/December: 54-66. Calabresi, Massimo, & Romesh Ratnesar (2002). â€Å"Can We Stop the Next Attack? † Time, 11 March, 16–26 Evenson, Brad (2001). â€Å"Canada Poorly Prepared for Germ Warfare. † National Post, 1 FebruaryHanley, Charles (1986a). â€Å"Experts Note Common Traits in Terrorists. † Ottawa Citizen, 19 April Hanley, Charles (1986b). â€Å"International Terrorism: Global Order Shaken by Wanton War. † Ottawa Citizen, 19 April Jenkins, Brian Michael (1983). New Modes of Conflict. Santa Monica, California: Rand Corporation, June. Livingstone, Neil C (1982). The War against Terrorism. Lexington, Massachusetts: Lexington Books McCabe, Aileen (1996). â€Å"Britain Learns to Live with Terrorism after Decades of Blasts. † Ottawa Citizen, 4 August McCabe, Aileen (1996).â€Å"Facing Terror with a Stiff Upper Lip . † Montreal Gazette, 3 August Nash, James L (2004). Prevention or cure. Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development. The OECD Observer. Paris: May:56 Rothkopf, David (2005). Can Technology Fix U. S. Intelligence. Technology Review. Cambridge: Feb. 108(2) Taber, Robert (1977). The War of the Flea: Guerrilla Warfare Theory and Practice. St. Albans, Frogmore, Herts, Great Britain: Paladin United States, Department of State, Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1997 Retrieved From < http://www. mipt.org/Patterns-of-Global-Terrorism. asp> Accessed Jan 3, 2006 United States, Department of State, Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1997 Retrieved From < http://www. mipt. org/Patterns-of-Global-Terrorism. asp> Accessed Jan 3, 2006 United States, Department of State, Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1999 Retrieved From < http://www. mipt. org/Patterns-of-Global-Terrorism. asp> Accessed Jan 3, 2006 United States, Department of State, Patterns of Global Terrorism: 2000 Retrieved From < http:/ /www. mipt. org/Patterns-of-Global-Terrorism. asp> Accessed Jan 3, 2006

Employees’ Perception of Selection Systems The WritePass Journal

Employees’ Perception of Selection Systems Introduction Employees’ Perception of Selection Systems IntroductionArticle 1: â€Å"Applicants Perceptions of Selection Procedures and Decisions: A Critical Review and Agenda for the Future†.Article 2: â€Å"Fairness Reactions to Selection Methods: An Italian Study†.Conclusions and RecommendationsReferencesRelated Introduction This paper summarises the views of two authors on how job applicants or potential employees perceive selection procedures. Both articles focus on employees’ perceptions of selection methods. Article 1: â€Å"Applicants Perceptions of Selection Procedures and Decisions: A Critical Review and Agenda for the Future†.    The first article is written by Ryan and Plolyhart (2000) and is titled â€Å"Applicants’ Perceptions of Selection Procedures and Decisions: A Critical Review and Agenda for the Future†. This article is motivated by the fact that low unemployment rates have increased the competition for employees, which has forced organisations to review the various components used in selecting job applicants and how job applicants’ perceptions of those procedures can affect the attractiveness of the organisation to potential employees. Another motivation for this study is the fact that there is lack of better research on applicant perspectives. Thirdly, the article notes that social justice theorists are looking for ways to apply social justice theory concepts to applicants’ perceptions of selection methods. Moreover, there is an increasing diversity in the workforce as well as racial differences in perception of selection procedures which can affect the manner in which j ob applicants perceive organisations and thus the attractiveness of those organisations to potential employees. The article notes that one of the main assumptions of most research in this area is that the manner in which job applicants perceive selection procedures and processes affects the manner in which the applicant views the organisation and thus the decision on whether to apply for a job vacancy to that organisation or not. The article also suggests that differences in perceptions between minority and majority groups on certain selection procedures can account for some of the differences in job performance that is often observed between these two groups. The article begins by reviewing the works of Schimittand Gilliland (1992) and Gilliland (1993). These studies develop a model which provides a link between between applicants’ perceptions of selection systems and situational factors and their subsequent â€Å"attitudes and behaviours† towards those organisations. The model postulates that applicants’ perceptions of the procedural justice system are influenced by situational characteristics. These characteristics include the type of test administered during the selection process, the human resource policy of the organisation and the behaviour of the human resource staff of the organisation. The overall fairness of the selection system is influenced by the degree to which the applicants’ perceptions of the procedural justice of the selection system meet the expectations of applicants. The framework further stipulates that applicants’ prior experiences with a selection system would affect the evaluatio n of the system. Distributive justice rules of equity, equality, and need have an impact on the perceptions of the distributive fairness of the final decision reached through the selection system. Distributive justice rules are in turn influenced by performance expectations and the salience of discrimination. In a nutshell, the framework concludes that there should be a relationship between outcomes such as â€Å"job application decisions, test motivation, self-esteem, self-efficacy, endorsement of the company’s products, job acceptance decisions, job satisfaction, and performance among others† and applicants’ perceptions of fairness of the selection process. After reviewing the framework, the authors then move on to provide a critical review of the empirical literature and evaluating how they conform to the framework. The review focuses on four key areas including: The perceptions that have been studied; The factors that determine applicants’ perceptions; The consequences of holding more positive or negative perceptions; and The theoretical frameworks that have been presented. With respect to the applicants’ perceptions that have been studied, the article notes that the most commonly researched perceptions include applicants’ feelings regarding degree to which the selection system is related to the job, feelings about the fairness of various aspects of the selection system and its associated outcomes, as well as feelings about test taking motivation. The authors provide a critical review in this area and conclude that a major concern with most of these studies is that their constructs are imprecise with respect to the manner in which they are defined as well as the variability with which they are operationalised. As a result, the authors conclude that a better conceptualisation of research on test behaviours and on fairness is required to improve understanding. The authors however, admit that the work of Chan et al (1998) to a certain extent provides a link between test attitudes and perception of fairness although the study focused only on two concepts from each line of research. According to the authors, lack of an improved integration of studies on test attitudes on fairness and test attitudes makes understanding difficult. For example, it is difficult to determine whether potential employees who are more anxious perceive procedures are more unfair as opposed to those who are less anxious. In addition, it is difficult to deter mine whether beliefs about testing have a higher impact on perceptions of fairness of a procedure than characteristics of the procedure and selection situation itself. The author notes that notes that most test-taking attitude measures are perceptions of oneself (including motivation, anxiety, etc) while justice-related perceptions typically focus on the fairness of the test used in making hiring or rejection decisions. The authors argue that there should be a relationship between applicants’ motivation and anxiety and the justice-related perceptions. The authors also suggest that it is important for other perceptions to be tested. Basically most of the studies under review focus on how the motivation or perceptions of applicants influence their perceptions of fairness. This approach neglects the impact of other perceptions of fairness that may be critical for the improvement of selection systems. Article 2: â€Å"Fairness Reactions to Selection Methods: An Italian Study†. This article is written by Bertolino and Steiner (2007). Like the first article, this article begins by reviewing the works of other authors who provide different conceptual frameworks on the relationship between applicants’ perceptions of fairness of selection systems and their attitudes and behaviours towards the organisations. This article cites the work of Schuler (1993) whose framework suggests that the reaction of applicants to a selection process is a function of the key characteristics of the selection techniques employed. In addition, the article reviews the work of Anderson and Ostroff (1997) who focus on the socialisation impact of selection methods. Like the first article, the second article also reviews the work of Gilliland (1993) who employ organisational justice theory to comprehend the reaction of applicants to selection systems. Unlike the first article, which is based solely on a critical review of empirical literature on the reaction of applicants to selection systems as well as the underlying models of selection systems, the second article is based on both primary and secondary information. It begins by reviewing literature, and then conducts and exploratory study on the reaction of applicants to selection systems using a sample of 137 Italian students. The study is motivated by the fact that despite the presence of evidence on selection systems, most of the studies have been conducted in other countries with no attention given to Italy. The article notes that cultural differences may play an important role in the manner in which applicants perceive selection systems and thus their reaction to those systems as well as their attitudes towards the organisation. Based on the four dimensions of culture proposed by Hofstede (1980, 1991) (individualism vs collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity vs femi ninity, and power distance), the article suggests that it is possible for selection systems to be avoided by these four dimensions. For example, the article reviews the work of Ryan et al. (1999) who show that uncertainty avoidance can affect the selection practices of many countries. In addition, the study reviews the work of Triandis (1990) who argue that people from countries with high uncertainty avoidance prefer predictability, knowing what others will do, and having clear instructions and expectations. This means that employees who work in countries with high uncertainty avoidance should be more inclined towards engaging in structuring activities, including the standardisation of practices. On the contrary, those in countries with low uncertainty avoidance should be less committed to formal structures and should be prepared to accept spontaneous changes in practices. The study employed a survey questionnaire to study the reaction of Italian student to selection systems. The questionnaire used in the study is the one developed by Steiner and Gilliland (1996) which presents 10 different selection methods used in the U.S or Europe. The questionnaire asked students to think about a job they would apply for upon completion of their course Using a within-subject analysis of variance (ANOVA) the ratings of process favourability was compared across 10 selection methods. The evidence suggests that there are significant differences across the 10 selection methods. The selection method that received the most favoured rating was â€Å"work-sample test†. Resumes, written ability tests, interviews and personal preferences had the second favourable rating. Personality tests and biographical information blanks received a neutral rating while honesty tests and personal contacts received negative ratings. The authors conclude that their results are similar to those obtained from other countries. In particular, they observe that employer’s right, opportunity to perform and face validity are the procedural dimensions that had a high correlation with process favourability for all four countries that were studied. The two articles are similar in that they both begin by providing a theoretical framework on selection methods. Both articles provide the same theory which shows that there is a relationship between applicants’ perceptions and their reactions to selection systems. However, the first article differs from the second one in that it is based solely on the review of secondary literature. The article does not arrive on any conclusions with respect applicants reactions to selection systems. Rather, it identifies weaknesses in the literature and provides recommended procedures for improvement in future studies. On the contrary, the second article employs primary data to study how employees’ perceptions of selection systems affect their reactions to those systems. It compares findings to previous studies and concludes that culture has no significant impact on employees’ reaction to selection systems in Western countries. The study observes that the findings from France, I taly and other Western countries are similar to those obtained in studies from the United States. This shows that the different cultural dimensions mentioned in Hofstede (1981, 1990) do not influence the manner in which employees perceive selection systems which means that it does not affect the manner in which the react to those systems. The foregoing suggests that other factors may be affecting employees’ perceptions rather than culture. Conclusions and Recommendations Based on the discussion of the two articles above, one can conclude that employees’ perception of selection procedures influences the manner in which they behave towards the organisation and the decision to accept or reject an offer to work for a particular company. These perceptions may even influence the applicants other interactions with the company such as deciding to buy or not to buy the company’s products. The main difference between the two articles is that one focuses on criticising research on selection systems while one focuses on understanding how employees perceive selection systems across countries and how those systems affect their reaction. Based on this conclusion, it is important for organisations to note that the manner in which they design their selection system can affect the perception of applicants and as such affect the attractiveness of vacancies to potential applicants. Selection systems can even influence the ability of a company to attract qu alified applicants. If employees have a negative perception about a particular company, they may not be motivated to apply for a vacancy in that company and this may make it difficult for the company to fill the vacancy with a qualified applicant. Consequently, employers should seek the most favourable selection systems so as to increase their ability to attract qualified applicants to their jobs. The first article shows that research on selection systems is limited. Therefore, this paper recommends that more research should be conducted on selection systems and how employees perceive those systems. By so doing one can provide better recommendations to employers to aid them in designing their selection systems. References Bertolino, M., Steiner, D. D. (2007) â€Å"Fairness Reactions to Selection Methods: An Italian study†, International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 15, Number 2 Ryan, A. N., Ployhart R. E. (2000) â€Å"Applicants Perceptions of Selection Procedures and Decisions: A Critical Review and Agenda for the Future†, Journal of Management, 26, 565-606

ATP Definition and Importance in Metabolism

ATP Definition and Importance in Metabolism Adenosine triphosphate or ATP is often called the energy currency of the cell because this molecule plays a key role in metabolism, particularly in energy transfer within cells. The molecule acts to couple the energy of exergonic and endergonic processes, making energetically unfavorable chemical reactions able to proceed. Metabolic Reactions Involving ATP Adenosine triphosphate is used to transport chemical energy in many important processes, including: aerobic respiration (glycolysis and the citric acid cycle)fermentationcellular divisionphotophosphorylationmotility (e.g., shortening of myosin and actin filament cross-bridges as well ​as  cytoskeleton construction)exocytosis and endocytosisphotosynthesisprotein synthesis In addition to metabolic functions, ATP is involved in signal transduction. It is believed to be the neurotransmitter responsible for the sensation of taste. The human central and peripheral nervous system, in particular, relies on ATP signaling. ATP is also added to nucleic acids during transcription. ATP is continuously recycled, rather than expended. Its converted back into precursor molecules, so it can be used again and again. In human beings, for example, the amount of ATP recycled daily is about the same as body weight, even though the average human being only has about 250 grams of ATP. Another way to look at it is that a single molecule of ATP gets recycled 500-700 times every day. At any moment in time, the amount of ATP plus ADP is fairly constant. This is important since ATP is not a molecule that can be stored for later use.​ ATP may be produced from simple and complex sugars as well as from lipids via redox reactions. For this to occur, the carbohydrates must first be broken down into simple sugars, while the lipids must be broken ​into  fatty acids and glycerol. However, ATP production is highly regulated. Its production is controlled via substrate concentration, feedback mechanisms, and allosteric hindrance. ATP Structure As indicated by the molecular name, adenosine triphosphate consists of three phosphate groups (tri- prefix before phosphate) connected to adenosine. Adenosine is made by attaching the 9 nitrogen atom of the purine base adenine to the 1 carbon of the pentose sugar ribose. The phosphate groups are attached connecting and oxygen from a phosphate to the 5 carbon of the ribose. Starting with the group closest to the ribose sugar, the phosphate groups are named alpha (ÃŽ ±), beta (ÃŽ ²), and gamma (ÃŽ ³). Removing a phosphate group results in adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and removing two groups produces adenosine monophosphate (AMP). How ATP Produces Energy The key to energy production lies ​with the  phosphate groups. Breaking the phosphate bond is an exothermic reaction.  So, when ATP loses one or two phosphate groups, energy is released. More energy is released breaking the first phosphate bond than the second. ATP H2O → ADP Pi Energy (Δ G -30.5 kJ.mol-1)ATP H2O → AMP PPi Energy (Δ G -45.6 kJ.mol-1) The energy that is released is coupled to an endothermic (thermodynamically unfavorable) reaction in order to give it ​the  activation energy needed to proceed. ATP Facts ATP was discovered in 1929 by two independent sets of researchers: Karl Lohmann and also Cyrus Fiske/Yellapragada Subbarow. Alexander Todd first synthesized the molecule in 1948. Empirical Formula C10H16N5O13P3 Chemical Formula C10H8N4O2NH2(OH2)(PO3H)3H Molecular Mass 507.18 g.mol-1 What Is ATP an Important Molecule in Metabolism? There are essentially two reasons ATP is so important: Its the only chemical in the body that can be directly used as energy.Other forms of chemical energy need to be converted into ATP before they can be used. Another important point is that ATP is recyclable. If the molecule was used up after each reaction, it wouldnt be practical for metabolism. ATP Trivia Want to impress your friends? Learn the IUPAC name for adenosine triphosphate. Its  [(2R,3S,4R,5R)-5-(6-aminopurin-9-yl)-3,4-dihydroxyoxolan-2-yl]methyl(hydroxyphosphonooxyphosphoryl)hydrogen phosphate.While most students study ATP as it relates to animal metabolism, the molecule is also the key form of chemical energy in plants.The density of pure ATP is comparable to that of water. Its 1.04 grams per cubic centimeter.The melting point of pure ATP is  368.6 °F (187 °C).

Produce a critical analysis of the completed video that involves Essay

Produce a critical analysis of the completed video that involves theorising the possible practices, i.e., setting the practice i - Essay Example The film accomplishes its goal in creating an unexpected ending, but some of the work in the beginning could better frame the intentions for the reactions of the viewer. Blindside is a film that provides a classic point of view with a cleanly performed twist at the end. The film genre that Blindside is most similar to is that of the film noir, although just as film noir does, it slips effortlessly into the many aspects of the thriller. One of the aspects of film noir is in the crisis of masculinity that is defined through alienation and despair (Silver, 5). The two male characters in Blindside create two sides of the criminal aspects of masculine crisis and alienation and despair. As the viewer first watches the film, the alienation and despair of seeking a criminal that commits horrific and bloody crimes is clear in the way in which the first character, named Michael, is framed as he works with seriousness and intensity at his desk, while the frailty of life and the vulnerability of the human existence is exampled in the way in which Neeson, the second character, is at the side of the road, shivering in the wind as he waits for Michael to appear at the crime scene. One of the most obvious ways in which the filmmakers recreate an example of the genre of film noir is through filming most of the short in black and white. However, the film does diverge from this type of film when scenes from the murder are revealed in short bursts of cinematic cuts. However, a film needs to exhibit more qualities other than the simple quality of being black and white in order to be a type of film noir. The film must build suspense and must have an essential number of basic characteristics in the building of its storyline. Silver frames these themes which are embodied in characters as follows: Alienated characters Existentialism Obsessed characters Freudianism Proletarian characters Marxism Femme fatales Feminism All of the above Structuralism While this short film does not ha ve the space in which to reflect all of these concepts, the two main characters have a duality that both reflects alienated and obsessed characters, thus providing for existentialist aspects and Freudian aspects of characterization. In addition, they appear to have the working class aspect of their character, reflected through the subterfuge which fools the audience into believing they are police, as well as through the type of clothes they wear, the cars they drive, and their working class nature as they move through their scenes. The primary aspect of this structure that is missing is the femme fatale, the woman who represents betrayal and masculine femininity. In the case of Blindside, the female character is purely the victim. She represents the impending release of the masculine build up of crisis, the According to Gates, the next evolution from film noir was to create the serial killer which moved away from the femme fatale and the victim-hero towards the relationship of the m ale-male connectivity of the investigator and the killer. The noir film was replaced with films that denied the masculine crisis through a â€Å"masquerade of masculinity† (123). In Blindside, the two male leads reflect the potential variations of the investigator, whether the victim-hero or the overtly masculine through displays of machismo, until they reveal themselves for the

Art in South Africa Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Art in South Africa - Research Paper Example From the early days of colonization by the Dutch, then the independence from the British, the apartheid era from 1949 to 1989 and the post apartheid era, art in South Africa has been hugely diversified in terms of subject and matter. The population in South Africa is hugely diverse when it comes to the issue of race. The leading races found in South Africa include Blacks, Whites, Indians and Coloured’s. The role of race in South African Art cannot be ignored as it has had a significant impact and resonates in Most of the South African artists work. An exhibition of South African artwork from the 19th century to modern popular art pieces will take place at University Gallery for students, faculty, and staff attending Indiana State University. The exhibition will run for one week in celebration of the South African Art Struggles during the apartheid period. The art exhibition will run daily for the seven days starting from 12pm to 5 pm and later on Guest artists from South Afric a will take to the podium and share their experiences on the history of art in South Africa. Objectives The history of South Africa has been told through many forms. However, art is one of the forms that captured the history of the country since Ancient times. Students in the university will have a better understanding of South Africa history in the eyes of different artists, through different races and lastly through different forms of art media. The history of art itself in South Africa is an intriguing one, and in holding the exhibition, cultural understanding of South Africans will be achieved. At the end of each exhibition and lectures, students and lectures will fill single cards to determine the impact on students. Context The audience that this exhibition target includes students and lecturers from different faculties at Indiana State University. The university population is composed of students from different cultural background. Knowledge on the different cultures is essen tial for each student and faculty individuals in the university. This will help in understanding other people’s culture while at the same time ensuring that there is cohesion in the University population. Students need to learn beyond their own culture and this art show will be  enable better understanding of   differences in other cultures. South Africa has a rich cultural background and those who wish to have future dealings in South Africa will find the exhibition particularly educative. Community Connections For the exhibition to run smoothly volunteers from the student body will be required to ensure that security and issues of mobilizing and ushering in guests are taken care of. The transportation of the artwork will also require students and other volunteers. The University Gallery will need to be cleaned daily.   Preparations for the lectures by the various guest artists has to be done. The help of the student community will be beneficial to ensure that the exhi bition is a success. Budget The exhibition will require funds to help transport various south African art pieces from Art galleries around the university. The galleries will also need some amount of money to be paid so that they can lend the paintings and other art pieces. This will be achieved by organizing fundraising events to help collect enough money. The South African consulate will also be approached to offer the sponsorship of

NURSING Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

NURSING - Essay Example A muscle is a vital type of soft tissues found in every organ of an animal’s body, the cells in a muscle of myosin, protein and acting all of which are vital in influencing the shape and size of an organ thus the entire organism (Blakey 77). Among the most vital muscles in the human body that enhance movement is the skeletal muscle. The skeletal muscle is responsible for the upright posture of humans. It connects bones through tendons, which act as levers thereby enabling movement. During a jog, both the arms and the legs move systematically. The lifting and dropping of the limbs during a jog arises from the ability of the skeletal muscles. The tendons in both the leg and the arm lift various parts of the limbs at the various synovial joints. Synovial joints foster the movement of various body parts in humans. Such are the most common types of joints in humans. A joint is a point in the body where two bones meet. Synovial joints have a slimy lubricant that enhances the efficiency in the contact of the bones in humans. Such joints as the elbow and the knee are among the most vital synovial joints that facilitate the movement of a body (Barnett 121). The synovial fluid requires adequate supply of blood from the arteries that share the anastomosis at the joint. Jogging engages the joints thereby heightening their activity. The heightened activity in turn increases the flow of blood through the arteries to the synovial fluid in the joints. Such is a desirable occurrence that enhances the functionality of the joints since they the synovial fluid replenishes itself thus keeping the joints functional. Regular jogging facilitates an adaptation tendency. The arteries expand thereby supplying the synovial fluid with adequate blood . This in turn enhances the production of the fluid thereby reducing the chances of people suffering from any form of joint aches breakages especially in old age. Among the movements at the joints in a

Watson & Skinner Perspective Essay Example for Free

Watson Skinner Perspective Essay Psychological perspectives will always change as long as psychology continues to move forward. Not one perspective or approach would be considered wrong or incorrect. It just adds to our understanding of human and animal behavior. Most psychologists would agree that not one perspective is correct, although in the past, early days of psychology, the behaviorist would have said their perspective was the only truly scientific one (McLeod, 2007). Two Psychologists who are well known for their theories on behaviorism are John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner. In this paper I will discuss their own perspectives on behaviorism. Behaviorism is an approach to psychology that combines elements of philosophy, methodology, and theory. It emerged in the early twentieth century as a reaction to mentalistic psychology, which often had difficulty making predictions that could be tested using rigorous experimental methods. The primary tenet of behaviorism, as expressed in the writings of John B. Watson, B. F. Skinner, and others, is that psychology should concern itself with the observable behavior of people and animals, not with unobservable events that take place in their minds. The behaviorist school of thought maintains that behaviors as such can be described scientifically without recourse either to internal physiological events or to hypothetical constructs such as thoughts and beliefs. John Boardus Watson(January 9, 1878 – September 25, 1958) was an American psychologist who established the psychological school of behaviorism. Watson promoted a change in psychology through his address, Psychology as the Behaviorist Views it, which was given at Columbia University in 1913. This is sometimes called The Behaviorist Manifesto(Watson, 1913). The first paragraph of the article concisely described Watsons behaviorist position: Psychology as the behaviorist views it is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior. Introspection forms no essential part of its methods, nor is the scientific value of its data dependent upon the readiness with which they lend themselves to interpretation in terms of consciousness. Watsons quote: â€Å"Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and Ill guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select – doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors. I am going beyond my facts and I admit it, but so have the advocates of the contrary and they have been doing it for many thousands of years† (Watson, 2012). The quotation often appears without context and with the last sentence omitted, making Watsons position appear more radical than it actually was. In Watsons book Behaviorism, the sentence is provided in the context of an extended argument against eugenics. That Watson did not hold a radical environmentalist position may be seen in his earlier writing in which his starting point for a science of behavior was the observable fact that organisms, man and animal alike, do adjust themselves to their environment by means of hereditary and habit equipments. (Watson, 2012). Nevertheless, Watson recognized the importance of nurture in the nature versus nurture discussion which was often neglected by his eugenic contemporaries. The behaviorist, in his efforts to get a unitary scheme of animal response, recognizes no dividing line between man and brute. The behavior of man, with all of its refinement and complexity, forms only a part of the behaviorists total scheme of investigation. With his behaviorism, Watson put the emphasis on external behavior of people and their reactions on given situations, rather than the internal, mental state of those people. In his opinion, the analysis of behaviors and reactions was the only objective method to get insight in the human actions. This outlook, combined with the complementary ideas of determinism, evolutionary continuism, and empiricism has contributed to what is now called radical behaviorism. It was this new outlook that Watson claimed would lead psychology into a new era. He claimed that before Wundt there was no psychology, and that after Wundt there was only confusion and anarchy. It was Watsons new behaviorism that would pave the way for further advancements in psychology (Watson, 2012). Burrhus Frederic B. F. Skinner (March 20, 1904 – August 18, 1990) was an American Psychologist, behaviorist, author, inventor, and social philosopher (Woodward, W. R. 1996). He Innovated his own philosophy of science called radical behaviorism, and founded his Own School of experimental research psychology—the experimental analysis of behavior. His Analysis of human behavior culminated in his work Verbal Behavior, as well as his Philosophical Manifesto Walden Two, both of which have which have recently seen enormous Increase in Interest experimentally and in applied settings. Contemporary academia considers Skinner a Pioneer of modern behaviorism along with John B. Watson and Ivan Pavlov. Skinner Called his particular brand of behaviorism Radical behaviorism (Skinner, 1984). Radical Behaviorism is the Philosophy of the science of behavior. It seeks to understand behavior as a Function of Environmental histories of reinforcing consequences. Such a functional analysis Makes it capable of producing technologies of behavior. This applied behaviorism lies on the Opposite side of the Ideological spectrum as the field of cognitive science. Unlike less austere Behaviorism, it does not accept private events such as thinking, perceptions, and unobservable Emotions in a causal account of an organism’s behavior. Skinner stood at the opposite position From humanistic Psychology for his whole career and denied humans possessing freedom and Dignity as well as Evidenced in his novel Beyond Freedom and Dignity (Skinner1984). Most of His theories were supposed to be Based on self-observation, which caused him to become a Supporter for behaviorism. Much of This self-observed theory stemmed from Thorndike’s Puzzle Box, a direct antecedent to Skinner’s Box (Skinner, 1984). The psychologist further Expanded on Thorndike’s earlier work by introducing the concept of Reinforcement to Thorndike’s Law of Effect (Skinner, 1984). Skinner was an Advocate of behavioral engineering And he thought that people should be controlled through the Systematic allocation of external Rewards (Skinner, 1984). Skinner believed that behavior is maintained from one condition to Another through similar or same consequences across these Situations. In short, behaviors are Causal factors that are influenced by the consequences. His Contribution to the understanding of Behavior influenced many other scientists to explain social Behavior and contingencies (Skinner, 1984). Reinforcement is a central concept in Behaviorism, and was seen as a central Mechanism in the Shaping and control of behavior. A common Misconception is that negative Reinforcement is Synonymous with punishment. This Misconception is rather pervasive, and is Commonly found in even scholarly accounts of Skinner and his contributions. To be clear, while Positive reinforcement is the strengthening of behavior by the application of some event, Negative reinforcement is the strengthening of behavior by the Removal or avoidance of some Aversive event (e. g. , opening and rising an umbrella over your Head on a rainy day is reinforced By the cessation of rain falling on you). Both types of Reinforcement strengthen Behavior, or Increase the probability of a behavior reoccurring; the Difference is in whether the Reinforcing Event is something applied (positive reinforcement) or something removed or avoided (negative Reinforcement). Punishment and extinction have the Effect of weakening Behavior or decreasing The future probability of a behaviors occurrence, by the application of an aversive Stimulus/event (positive punishment or punishment by contingent Stimulation), Removal of a Desirable stimulus (negative punishment or punishment by contingent Withdrawal), or the Absence of a rewarding stimulus, which causes the behavior to Stop (Skinner, 1984). After researching endless research, what is really boils down to is Watson, a classical behaviorist, believed that there was a connection between response and Environment and Skinners theory was a bit different from Watsons in that behavior was a result of consequence. Watson and Skinner were all fathers in the field of psychology. Their ideas Contributed to the way that behavior is seen. Their theories have helped to create many forms of Behavior modification as well as the processes that occur during thought. Although psychologys Theories grow and change daily; these two psychologists theories will maintain their values in Modern psychology.